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Buddhist
Publication Society Newsletter Summer-Fall 1989 No. 13 |
The
Problem of Conflict
It is one of the
bitterest ironies of human life that although virtually all human beings
cherish a desire to live in peace, we continually find ourselves embroiled in
conflict, pitted against others in relationships marred by tension, distrust or
open hostility. This irony is particularly poignant because it is immediately
evident b us that cordial, harmonious relations with others are a necessary
condition for our own genuine happiness. Not only do such relations allow us to
pursue undisturbed the goals we consider essential to our personal fulfillment,
but they bring us the deeper joy of meaningful communion with our fellow human
beings. Contentious living, in contrast, is always intrinsically painful,
involving a hardening of our subjective armour, a tightening of the knots of
anger and hate. Indeed, whatever the outcome of conflict may be -whether
victory or defeat - the result itself is ultimately detrimental for both victor
and victim alike. Nevertheless,
although harmonious living promises such rich blessings while discordant
relations entail so much harm and misery, for the most part our lives - and the
lives of those around us - are entangled in a ravelled net of quarrels and
disputes. Conflict may simmer within as silent suspicion and resentment or it
may explode into violent rage and devastation. k may implicate us at the level
of persona! relationships, or as members of an ethnic group, a political party,
a social class a a nation. But in one or another of its many manifestations,
the presence of conflict in our lives seems inescapable. Peace and harmony
hover in the distance as beautiful dreams for a summer's night or noble ideals
to which we pledge formal allegiance. But when reality knocks and dreams are
dispelled, we find ourselves drawn, usually against our better judgment, into
an arena where the pleasures that we seek exact as their price the hard cash of
struggle and contention. The teachings of the
Buddha, while framed around the goat of individual deliverance from suffering,
are also expounded for the purpose of instructing us in how we can live in
harmony with others. Such harmony is desirable not only as a source of
satisfaction in itself, but also because it is a prerequisite for treading the
path to the higher freedom. The final peace of enlightenment can arise only in
a mind that is at peace with others, and the mind can only be at peace with
others when we are actively committed to a course of training that enables us
to extricate the roots of conflict that lie buried deep within our hearts. Once, in ancient
India, Sakka the ruler of the gods came to the Buddha and asked: "By what
bonds are people bound whereby, though they wish to live in peace, without hate
and hostility, they yet live in conflict, with hate and hostility." The
Master replied: "It is the bonds of envy and avarice that so bind people
that, though they wish b live in peace, they live in conflict, with hate and
hostility." If we trace external conflicts back to their source, we will
find that they originate not in wealth, position or possessions, but in the
mind itself. They spring up because we envy others for the qualifies they
possess which we desire for ourselves, and because we are driven by an
unquenchable avarice b extend the boundaries of what we can label
"mine." Envy and avarice in
turn are grounded in two more fundamental psychological conditions. Envy arises
because we identify things as "I," because we perpetually seek to
establish a personal identity for ourselves internally and to project that
identify outward for others to recognize and accept. Avance arises because we
appropriate: we attempt to carve out a territory for ourselves and to furnish
that territory with possessions that will titillate our greed and sense of
self-importance. Conflict being thus rooted in envy and avarice, it follows
that the path to non-conflict must be a course of relinquishment, of removing
the constrictive thoughts and desires that pivot around the notions of
"I" and "mine," the drives to identify and to possess. This
course reaches consummation with the full maturity of wisdom, with insight into
the empty, egoless nature of all phenomena; for it is this insight which
exposes the hollowness of the notions of "I" and "mine" dud
underlie envy and avarice. However, although the final liberation from dinging
may lie far away, the path leading to it is a gradual one, growing out of
simpler, more basic steps that lie very close to our feet. _ Two such necessary
steps are changes in attitude with the power to transmute envy and avarice. One
is altruistic joy (muditaa), the ability b view the success of others with the
same gladness we experience at our own success. The other is generosity
(caaga), the readiness to give and to relinquish. The former is the specific antidote
for envy, the latter the antidote for avarice. What is common to both is a
lifting of the sense of identity from its narrow fixation on the self, and a
broadening of it to encompass others who share our desire to be happy and free
from suffering. As private
individuals we cannot hope to resolve by our will the larger patterns of
conflict that engulf the societies and nations to which we belong. We live in a
world that thrives on conflict, and in which the forces that nurture conflict
are pervasive, obstinate and terribly powerful. But as followers of the
Enlightened One what we can do and must do is to testify by our conduct to the
supremacy of peace: to avoid words and actions that engender animosity, to heal
divisions, to demonstrate the value of harmony and concord. The model we must
emulate is that provided by the Master in his description of the true disciple:
"He is one who unites the divided, who promotes friendships, enjoys
concord, rejoices in concord, delights in concord, and who speaks words that
promote concord."
Exploring
the Wheels
The Simile of the
Cloth & The Discourse on Effacement. Edited by Nyanaponika Thera (Wheel No.
61/62) These two suttas,
numbers 7 and 8 of the Majjhima Nikaya, are closely related in theme, for both
deal with the means of eliminating the defilements of the mind. The
translations included in the above Wheel issue were based on a manuscript
rendering by Ven. Bhikkhu Ñaanamoli, and the issue further gains from the
insightful introductions and notes by Ven. Nyanaponika Thera. "The Simile
of the Cloth" examines sixteen defilements of an ethical character which
figure prominently as determinants of man's social behaviour, both individually
and collectively. All these sixteen defilements - which include envy,
denigration, hypocrisy, etc. - are nuances or combinations of the three
unwholesome roots, greed, hatred and delusion, states which impede social
intercourse and have a negative effect on society as a whole. Hence Ven.
Nyanaponika notes that the composition of the list of defilements makes it
clear that the Buddha was aware of the social impact of these impurities, and
he summarizes the first part of the discourse by saying that "our social
conduct strongly affects the chances of our spiritual progress." The sutta indicates
two main stages in the attainment of full purification, one marking the
transition from the state of the worldling to that of the non-returner, the
other the transition from the non-retumer's state to arahantship. The first
involves the elimination, at least in part, of the sixteen defilements, and
this begins with self-knowledge. As Van. Nyanaponika remarks: In accordance with
the method of Satipatthana, right mindfulness, the presence of the defilements
in one's behavior has to be dearly noticed and honestly acknowledged, without
attempts at evasion, at minimizing or self-justification. The sutta concludes
with the Buddha's reply to the brahminical conception of purification by ritual
bathing: true purification comes by the inward bathing effected by meditation. "The Discourse
on Effacement" lists forty-four defilements selected from various
doctrinal sets, including the ten courses of wrong action, the five hindrances,
the wrong eightfold path, etc. The stress of the sutta is on the practice of
effacement - not the mere temporary suppression of the defilements but their
radical uprooting is the key to human liberation. The method of
effacement follows a fixed formulation: "Others will be harmful; we shall
not be harmful here - thus effacement can be done." Ven. Nyanaponika notes
that "this bespeaks of the Buddha's realistic outlook as benefitting a
world that cannot be improved by mere wishing nor by `preaching at it.' ... If
the aim is the radical effacement of mental defilements we cannot afford to
waste time and be deviated from our task by sidelong glances at the behaviour
of others." In
addition to the resolve to efface the defilements, and the following of the
methods given for identifying them as they appear in our minds, the Buddha also
shows the need to substitute for the defilements the positive states which are
their opposites. The Buddha compares this to a road for circumventing the wrong
path, and he shows that for every quality leading downwards there is an exactly
opposite quality leading upwards, a quality that lies within our capacity to
cultivate. By
effacing the defilements one by one, by weakening their strength, and by
cultivating their positive counterparts, beneficial effects can be observed in
this lifetime through the ease with which we can live with our fellow human
beings. The practice of effacement brings positive results here and now, leads
to a favourable rebirth, and unfolds our highest potentials. Both
these suttas combined in a single slim volume, if studied together with their
introductions and notes, will not only make inspiring reading but will give
clear guidance to one's practice.
Buddhism
in Sri Lanka
This compact survey
by H.R. Perera (originally published as Buddhism in Ceylon: Its Past and
Present) is once more available. The book traces the history of Buddhism in Sri
Lanka from the arrival of Prince Vijaya to modern times. This new edition has
been' composed in clear computer-set type and bears a: handsome full-colour
cover from the KelaniyaVihara. A Triple Wheel
-No. I GO a/b/c
Book
Review
Theravada Buddhism: A
Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Richard Gombrich.
Routledge & Kegan Paul, London and New York, 1988. 240 pp. 7.95. In the present work
Richard Gombrich, secretary of the Pali Text Society, adopts a sociological
perspective in investigating the history of Theravada Buddhism from its origins
in ancient India through its later development in Sri Lanka. Gombrich's book is
not a work of original research but draws heavily upon the writings of other
historical scholars. Its justification, and merit, lies in fitting their more
specialised studies into a single connected account of Theravada history,
explored by way of its social ramifications. As a social historian Gombrich
avoids the reductionism fashionable in academic circles, which would explain
away religious ideas and institutions as mere by-products of the socio-economic
infrastructure. Committed instead to a "metaphysically neutral"
stance, he sees his task to be to exhibit the reciprocal relations between the
distinctive doctrines and institutions of Theravada Buddhism and the social
conditions under which it has flourished. Although his perspective does not
coincide in all respects with the view that Buddhist tradition takes of its own
history, his account is sympathetic and grounded upon careful evaluation of the
historical evidence. Gombrich divides the
history of Theravada Buddhism into three main phases. The first (dealt with in
Chapters 2-5) is the rise of Buddhism and its early development. Gombrich
locates the problem situation to which the Dhamma was addressed in the
widespread anxiety and alienation caused by the disintegration of traditional
brahminic culture in the urban centres of the Buddha's day. To deal with this
problem the Buddha offered a universal ethic and a path to release from
suffering that depended not on fortuitous externals but on individual effort
and personal purification. A full chapter on
the Sangha (4) provides concise explanations of the disciplinary rules and
delineates the relationship between monastics and laity in early Buddhism. The
next chapter, the last on India, discusses Theravada lay religiosity and
concludes with a section on King Asoka, whose patronage transformed Buddhism
into a world religion. The Asokan missions form a natural bridge to the next
division of the book, which focuses upon Ceylon to pursue the continued
evolution of Theravada Buddhism outside India. Here Gombrich finds that while
Theravada maintained its doctrinal conservatism intact, the social conditions
it met in its new home - a feudally structured agrarian society - imposed upon
it unforeseen developments. He traces the key points in the process by which
Buddhism in Ceylon, along with its continuity with Indian Theravada, came to
exhibit features discordant with the intentions of its Founder. Gombrich
discusses in particular its emergence as a symbol of ethno-national identity
and the evolution of the Sangha into a land-owning cultural elite regulating
membership on the basis of caste. Chapter 7, perhaps
the most interesting in the book, is a study of what Gombrich calls
"Protestant Buddhism," the brand of Theravada that emerged in the
late nineteenth century under the impact of the Christian missions and the
tutelage of their adversaries, the Theosophists. The salient characteristic of
Protestant Buddhism, as befits its origins among the new English educated,
urbanized middle class, is the increased importance assigned to the laity and
the diminished role of the Sangha. In
his final chapter Gombrich discusses current trends and new problems in
Sinhalese Theravada Buddhism. His comments here are a piquant reminder of
recent events, but it is puzzling that in his discussion of the Sangha he does
not mention its politicization, a very important development. Gombrich promises
another book dealing in more detail with Buddhism in present-day Sri Lanka, and
it is to be hoped that this promise will soon be fulfilled. Bhikkhu
Bodhi Extracts from The Light of Asia. Selected by Triscella Kularatne;
illustrated by Sisil Mendis. 1988. 80 pp. SL Rs. 250/US $10 (plus postage).
Order from: Mrs. Triscella Kularatne, Tennahena Estate, Ranwala, Godakawela,
Sri Lanka; or from: M.D. Gunasena & Co. Ltd., 217, Olcott Mawatha, Colombo
11, Sri Lanka.. This is a jumbo edition of selections from Sir Edwin Arnold's
classic poem on the life of the Buddha, with 22 pages of illustrations in
colour.
Office
News
At our Annual General
Meeting held towards the end of 1988, the Ven. Nyanaponika Mahathera announced
his decision to retire from the presidency of the BPS, a position he has held
since the post was established. He was replaced by Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi, whose
contribution to the BPS as Editor for the last five years will be well known to
our readers. As a co-founder of
the BPS, and its long-term President, the Ven. Mahathera always guided us with
kindness and gentleness. He set for us an inspiring example of wisdom,
helpfulness and diligence, which we have endeavoured to emulate in our work. At
his advanced age (his 88th birthday fell on July 21st) he felt that the time
had come for a younger person to relieve him of his duties. The Buddhist world
owes an immense debt to Ven. Nyanaponika for his valuable literary works, but
for us here in Kandy he and the BPS are synonymous. We are graced that in
retirement he has agreed to become our Patron. We wish him longer life and good
health, so that he may continue to give us the benefit of his wisdom and
experience. Our Spanish readers
may be interested to learn that a beautifully produced Spanish translation has
been issued of Francis Story's well-known essay, The Case for Rebirth (Wheel
No. 12/13). It is published under the title Volver a Nacer by
Editorial Sirio S.A., Panaderos 9-29005 Malaga. The Zen Lotus
Society wishes us to inform our readers of a 2-hour video cassette they issue,
World Buddhism in North America, a documentary intended to capture the spirit
of North American Buddhism in the 1980's. The video is priced at U.S. $65.
Although it is VHS, it does not seem to be compatible with standard VHS players
used in Sri Lanka, so we advise our readers to inquire first from the
publishers about technical details: Zen Lotus Society, 1214 Packard Road, Ann
Arbor, MI 48104 U.S.A. Tel: (313) 761-6520. We wish to remind
our Associate Members that they are entitled to a 10% discount: those abroad,
on orders of U.S. $25 or more; local members, on orders of Rs. 100 or more.
Please cite your membership number when ordering. Our Sinhalese
readers should bear in mind that the BPS has back issues of almost all titles
in our Sinhala series, Damsak, edited by Ven. Piyadassi Thera of Vajirarama.
For a list of Damsak titles, please write. These titles are especially well
suited as gifts to libraries, hospital patients,
and friends who wish for reading material on the Dhamma.
Guidelines
to Sutta Study
In the last
installment of this series, we saw that in his first discourse, after teaching
the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha declared that he had discovered three types
of knowledge concerning each of the four truths: knowledge of the truth itself;
knowledge of the task implied by the truth; and knowledge that this task has
been accomplished. The task imposed by the first noble truth, the truth of
suffering, is full understanding, and we saw that this means comprehending the
five aggregates by way of their universal characteristics of impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness and not-self. Completion of this task is the mark of the
arahant, who has thereby dispelled the mist of ignorance covering over the true
nature of being and fathomed the deepest, most rewarding knowledge. Each of the
other three truths also implies a definite task, and by showing what these
tasks are the Buddha makes it plain that the Dhamma is no mere system of
thought, a theory about the world, but a practical discipline requiring us to
order our lives in a manner conducive to the achievement of these tasks. The second noble
truth is craving as the origin of suffering, and the task imposed by this truth
is abandonment (pahaana). To see that
suffering originates from craving is to see that craving along with its
attendant defilements must be abandoned. The abandonment of craving requires
that we exercise diligence, diligence in controlling our actions, diligence in
controlling and mastering our minds. The defilements must be removed gradually,
in stages. First we have to eliminate their coarser manifestations in conduct,
then their subtler irruptions in thought, and finally their finest hair roots -
the latent tendencies - nestling in the hidden recesses of the mind. The third noble
truth is the cessation of suffering, Nibbaana. Nibbaana is the unconditioned
element, and as such is something that cannot be produced, cannot be brought into
being. Nibbaana is without an origin, ever peaceful, blissful and sublime. Yet,
though unproduced, Nibbaana must be attained by experiencing it directly.
Thence the task imposed by the third noble truth is realization (sacchikarana), the direct penetration
of the unconditioned element. Nibbaana is to be
realized by developing the Noble Eightfold Path, described in the fourth truth
as the way leading to the end of suffering. Thus the task implied by the fourth
truth is development (bhaavanaa); if
we wish to realize the cessation of suffering, we must develop the practice of
the Noble Eightfold Path, and this is done by entering the threefold training
into which the eight path factors are grouped: the training in morality,
concentration and wisdom. When the path is completely developed, the other
three tasks are accomplished simultaneously: we fully understand suffering, we
abandon craving and the other defilements, and we realize Nibbaana Thence the Buddha
concludes his first sermon by declaring that only when his knowledge and vision
regarding the Four Noble Truths and their respective tasks was fully purified,
did he claim in the world to have awakened to the distinctive attribute of a
Fully Enlightened One - the supreme perfect enlightenment.
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